有色金属材料与工程  2025, Vol. 46 Issue (3): 1-10    DOI: 10.13258/j.cnki.nmme.20250506001   PDF    
增材制造奥氏体不锈钢抗氢脆行为研究进展
田兴达, 陈爱英    
上海理工大学 材料与化学学院,上海 200093
摘要:氢能作为一种新型能源正受到国际社会的广泛关注,然而,用于氢能运输和储存的奥氏体不锈钢不可避免地面临氢脆问题。传统工艺制备的奥氏体不锈钢无法避免氢脆发生,而增材制造工艺在制备奥氏体不锈钢抗氢脆结构部件方面具有显著优势,为解决奥氏体不锈钢氢脆问题提供了新思路。概述了增材制造奥氏体不锈钢抗氢脆机制的研究进展,并对以下方面进行了讨论与分析:传统奥氏体不锈钢氢原子捕获及其氢脆机制;增材制造奥氏体不锈钢微观组织结构特征及其对氢原子捕获的影响;增材制造奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能及机制。对增材制造奥氏体不锈钢在氢环境中的应用进行了总结和展望。
关键词氢能    增材制造    奥氏体不锈钢    氢脆    
Research progress on hydrogen embrittlement resistance behaviors of additively-manufactured austenitic stainless steels
TIAN Xingda, CHEN Aiying    
School of Materials and Chemistry, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
Abstract: Hydrogen energy, as a new energy source, is receiving widespread attention from the international community. However, austenitic stainless steels used for hydrogen energy production, transportation, and storage inevitably suffer from hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is hardly avoided in the austenitic stainless steels prepared by traditional manufacturing processes, while additive manufacturing technology demonstrates significant advantages in manufacturing austenitic stainless steel anti-hydrogen embrittlement structural components, providing new ideas for solving the problem of austenitic stainless steel hydrogen embrittlement. The research progress on the anti-hydrogen embrittlement mechanism of additively-manufactured austenitic stainless steels was overviewed, and discussions were carried out according to the following aspects: Hydrogen atom capture and hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms of traditional austenitic stainless steel; Microstructure characteristics of austenitic stainless steel produced by additive manufacturing and their influence on hydrogen atom capture; The hydrogen embrittlement resistance and mechanism of additive manufacturing austenitic stainless steel. This paper summarized the applications and prospects of austenitic stainless steels manufactured by additive manufacturing in hydrogen environments.
Key words: hydrogen energy    additive manufacturing    authenticate stainless steel    hydrogen embrittlement    

随着氢能在交通、储能等领域的广泛应用,氢能为全球能源转型及环境保护带来了巨大机遇,而且还有助于减少对传统化石能源的依赖,降低碳排放,这对于实现碳中和目标具有至关重要的意义。然而,在氢能大规模生产、运输及储存过程中,传统金属材料会不可避免地出现氢脆问题。氢是元素周期表中原子半径最小的元素,极易吸附在合金表面,并由表面扩散至合金内部,从而使合金的强度、延展性和断裂韧性显著降低[1-2],甚至引发突发性氢脆[3-4]。氢脆自1875年被首次报道以来,已被系统地研究逾150年,但仍是材料领域尚未完全攻克的核心挑战[5-6]

增材制造工艺是一种以逐层堆积材料的方式制备构件的先进技术,该技术正在向医疗保健、航空航天等领域迅速拓展[7-12]。不同于传统合金的氢脆行为,增材制造金属材料展现出独特的抗氢脆特性,但目前缺乏系统性综述[13-19]。本工作以304/316L 等典型牌号的奥氏体不锈钢为例,对比传统工艺(如铸造)制备的奥氏体不锈钢(如商用奥氏体不锈钢)与增材制造工艺(如选择性激光熔化、直接能量沉积、激光粉末床熔合)制备的奥氏体不锈钢的微观组织结构和氢脆性能差异,从微观组织结构演变、氢原子扩散路径等角度详细分析奥氏体不锈钢抗氢脆机制,并指出高强度、高抗氢脆奥氏体不锈钢的发展方向。本文的分析结果不仅可为增材制造工艺在抗氢脆结构材料领域的应用拓展提供参考,更能为奥氏体不锈钢氢脆行为的深入研究提供理论指导。

1 奥氏体不锈钢微观组织结构对氢原子捕获及氢脆机制的影响 1.1 传统奥氏体不锈钢氢原子捕获及其氢脆机制

氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的捕获与扩散机制是一个复杂过程。在奥氏体不锈钢的微观组织中,空位、位错、晶界和析出相等都可以作为氢原子的吸附位点。表1为奥氏体不锈钢中常见的氢原子吸附位点及其结合能[20-25]。结合能差异导致这些吸附位点对氢原子的捕获能力与扩散行为产生不同程度的影响。空位作为常见的晶体陷阱,空位氢原子吸附位点结合能为30~60 kJ/mol,为氢原子提供了易于吸附的位点,使氢原子容易被捕获并在空位周围扩散,对应的氢脆机制为吸附诱导位错发射(adsorption induced dislocation emission,AIDE);析出相氢原子吸附位点结合能为30~50 kJ/mol,不同的析出相具有不同的化学组成和晶体结构,会影响氢原子的捕获与扩散,对应的氢脆机制为氢原子增强脱附(hydrogen enhanced desorption,HEDE);晶界是氢原子吸附的主要位点和扩散的主要路径,晶界处存在较高的氢原子吸附质量浓度和应力集中区域,对应的氢脆机制为氢原子增强局部塑性(hydrogen enhanced localplasticity,HELP)和HEDE;位错作为氢原子吸附位点,能够捕获氢原子并沿着位错线进行扩散,对应的氢脆机制为氢原子增强应变诱导空位(hydrogen enhanced strain inducedvacancy,HESIV)。传统奥氏体不锈钢中析出相、位错捕获氢原子数量较少,通常被忽略不计。

表 1 奥氏体不锈钢中常见的氢原子吸附位点及其结合能[20-25] Tab. 1 Common hydrogen atom adsorption sites and their binding energies in austenitic stainless steels[20-25]

氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散主要是通过晶格间隙进行的。然而,晶格中的各种缺陷、杂质以及合金元素都会对氢原子的扩散产生影响。氢原子的引入导致堆垛层错能(stacking fault energy,SFE)降低,而SFE小于16 mJ/m2时,容易诱发马氏体相变,导致氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢内部的扩散加剧,进而产生应力集中,产生微裂纹。当氢原子累积到一定质量浓度时,微裂纹扩展,导致奥氏体不锈钢发生氢脆断裂。图1为氢原子与微观结构缺陷相互作用以及常见的氢脆模型示意图。氢脆断裂主要表现出如图1中的几种机制:HELP、HEDE、AIDE、HESIV,这4种机制通过协同作用来控制奥氏体不锈钢的氢脆行为。HELP机制指出,氢原子累积在裂纹尖端,降低了对位错运动的阻力,促进了位错的增殖,并导致局部位错堆积和塑性变形。这种局部塑性变形满足了断裂的前提条件,使断裂能够在较低的宏观塑性变形时发生。HEDE机制指出,氢原子的存在会减弱原子间的键合。当氢原子在晶界、裂纹尖端等高应力区域累积时,会降低原子键的内聚强度,引发沿晶或穿晶断裂。AIDE 机制指出,氢原子吸附降低奥氏体不锈钢内聚强度并促进裂纹尖端位错运动,最终通过位错滑移和微空隙形成,导致裂纹扩展。氢原子促进了应变诱导空位的形成,形成稳定的空位,加速了断裂过程,导致奥氏体不锈钢过早失效。

图 1 氢原子与微观结构缺陷相互作用以及常见的氢脆模型示意图[11] Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the interaction between hydrogen atoms and microstructural defects and common hydrogen embrittlement models [11]
1.2 增材制造奥氏体不锈钢微观组织结构特征及其对氢原子捕获的影响

图2为激光粉末床熔合316L奥氏体不锈钢不同尺度的微观组织,呈现多尺度性、多级性及化学不均匀性特征。按尺寸划分,微观组织中存在微米级熔池边界、晶界(见图2a2c),以及纳米级胞状组织、位错胞壁和析出相偏析(见图2d)。除晶界外,其他组织均为快速加热/凝固过程中引入的非平衡组织。其对氢原子吸附的影响如下:

图 2 激光粉末床熔合316L奥氏体不锈钢不同尺度的微观组织[11-12] Fig. 2 Microstructures of 316L austenitic stainless steel at different scales by laser powder bed fusion[11-12]

增材制造奥氏体不锈钢的熔池处存在微米级至亚微米级复杂的微观组织结构。通过激光或电子束等热源快速加热及冷却,在熔池边界形成独特的热影响区。急剧的温度变化会强烈扰动晶体生长和凝固过程,形成复杂晶体结构。An等[26]研究发现,熔池边界凝固胞/枝晶沿<100>晶向方向外延生长。熔池边界为氢原子提供更多吸附位点,使氢原子更易在此处被捕获。由于熔池内温度梯度场更为复杂,位错胞从无序结构演变为有序结构,吸附氢原子后将其固定于晶格畸变区、晶界与亚晶界等特定位点,从而降低奥氏体不锈钢的氢脆风险。

增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中胞状组织为主导微观组织。胞状组织能极大地提高奥氏体不锈钢的力学性能,包括屈服强度、抗拉强度及异质变形应力。胞状组织主要由增材制造过程中较高的冷却速率所致,可视为无二次枝晶臂的枝晶,其三维形态呈圆柱状[27]。胞状组织的生长方向由最快生长晶体学取向和局部温度梯度场共同决定。对于面心立方或体心立方结构,其最快的生长方向为最接近温度梯度场的<100>晶向方向[27]。胞状组织常出现化学不均匀性,导致胞壁处出现元素偏聚,偏聚元素会与扩散氢原子结合生成氢化物,从而提高胞状组织的氢原子捕获能力。在增材制造奥氏体不锈钢过程中,快速凝固会引发显著的位错增殖,其位错密度可达传统奥氏体不锈钢的 10~100 倍。位错周围的晶格畸变和应力集中为氢原子的吸附和扩散提供了有利条件。氢原子易被位错等晶体缺陷捕获并形成氢化物,氢化物与位错的交互作用会改变位错运动的阻力,进而影响位错的运动行为及增殖过程。结合已有研究[27-30],目前认可度较高的解释是:这种胞状组织由逐层熔融凝固过程中产生的较高热应力所致。高温下,当热应力超过奥氏体不锈钢屈服强度时,会诱发塑性变形并导致位错增殖。位错运动过程中,偏聚元素对位错的钉扎作用使位错在胞壁处富集,从而提供了大量的氢原子吸附位点,进而提高了奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能[31-36]

析出相通常具有特定的晶体结构和化学组成,可以作为氢原子的吸附位点或扩散障碍。增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中的析出相主要包括碳化物和氮化物,其中晶界处偏聚的碳化物以M23C6为主[37-42]。M23C6碳化物稳定性高,能有效阻碍氢原子扩散,对捕获氢原子和降低氢脆风险较为有利。析出相的分布和形态也会影响氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的分布和聚集,进而影响氢脆断裂过程。

上述微观组织结构的差异导致氢原子扩散路径和扩散速率存在差异。氢原子扩散系数的计算公式通常基于阿伦尼乌斯方程,其形式如下[43]

$ \qquad D=D_0\cdot\exp\left(-\frac{Q}{RT}\right) $ (1)

式中:D为氢原子扩散系数;D0为前置因子;Q为扩散活化能;R为气体常数;T为热力学温度。

相比商用奥氏体不锈钢,选择性激光熔化奥氏体不锈钢具有较小的扩散速率,同时具有较高的氢原子质量浓度。表2为氢原子在不同工艺制备的奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散速率和质量浓度。氢原子在选择性激光熔化304L和316L奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散速率分别为4.2×10−16、4.0×10−16 m2/s,氢原子的扩散率明显低于传统304L和316L奥氏体不锈钢的。选择性激光熔化奥氏体不锈钢中氢原子沿 <100> 晶向扩散相对困难,从晶体学角度分析主要原因为:<100 > 晶向原子呈紧密堆积排列,其晶格结构产生的本征点阵阻力显著高于其他晶向的[44-48]。氢原子沿<100>晶向扩散时,遇到的晶格阻碍相对较多,导致氢原子扩散受阻,从而提高了奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能[49-59]。但在传统奥氏体不锈钢中,氢原子的扩散路径以沿晶界扩散及晶格间隙扩散为主。由于氢原子在晶界和晶格间隙扩散速率较大,易大量富集于奥氏体不锈钢内部缺陷处,进而导致奥氏体不锈钢发生氢脆断裂。

表 2 氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散速率和质量浓度[37-38] Tab. 2 Diffusion rates and mass concentrations of hydrogen atoms in austenitic stainless steels[37-38]
2 奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能及其机制

氢原子对奥氏体不锈钢的影响主要表现在延展性损失上。因此,用伸长损失率来表征奥氏体不锈钢的氢脆敏感性。表3为充氢后增材制造和传统奥氏体不锈钢的力学性能。增材制造奥氏体不锈钢氢脆敏感性明显低于传统奥氏体不锈钢的,这一显著差异主要源于增材制造独特的工艺过程。增材制造奥氏体不锈钢通过逐层堆积的方式成型,使内部微观组织结构呈现出与传统奥氏体不锈钢截然不同的特征。传统奥氏体不锈钢经历的加工过程较为复杂,会引入更多的晶格缺陷、残余应力等,这些均会成为氢原子聚集和引发氢脆的潜在位点。在增材制造过程中,快速凝固和逐层堆积工艺有助于形成更均匀、致密的微观组织。由于晶格缺陷较少,氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散和聚集路径受到阻碍,从而降低了氢脆发生的几率,进一步降低了氢脆敏感性。

表 3 增材制造和传统奥氏体不锈钢的力学性能 Tab. 3 Mechanical properties of additive manufacturing and traditional austenitic stainless steels

图3为增材制造和传统奥氏体不锈钢氢脆机制示意图。从微观组织角度来看,增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散路径和分布情况与传统奥氏体不锈钢中的不同[ 60-69]。逐层堆积制造方式导致奥氏体不锈钢内部存在明显的胞状组织、熔池边界、析出相、位错。在捕获氢原子方面,这些缺陷成为氢原子的吸附位点,防止氢原子扩散和聚集,降低氢原子向奥氏体不锈钢中心的扩散速率,使氢原子的质量浓度平均化,从而降低奥氏体不锈钢氢脆的发生几率[47]。充氢后,均匀分布的氢原子会降低局域应力集中,抑制马氏体相变,从而提高了奥氏体不锈钢的塑性。充氢后,会降低奥氏体不锈钢的层错能,激发纳米孪晶的形成,这也有助于提高奥氏体不锈钢的塑性[62, 64]。外应力的大小、方向和加载速率等因素都会对增材制造奥氏体不锈钢的氢脆行为产生影响,较大的外应力可能会导致更多的位错运动和晶界滑移,从而增加氢原子与位错和晶界的相互作用,降低氢脆发生的几率[63, 66]。传统奥氏体不锈钢中析出相及位错数量极少,与晶界、相界等主要氢原子吸附位点相比,析出相和位错的氢原子吸附量可忽略不计。由于扩散速率和溶解度的差异,氢原子主要富集于晶界、相界处,当富集的氢原子超过氢原子在特定界面处的浓度临界值时,会诱发氢致马氏体相变,进而触发HEDE 机制。诱导界面裂纹的萌生并沿相界或晶界扩展,造成奥氏体不锈钢过早断裂[70-73]。此外,残余奥氏体中氢原子增强的滑移局部化会沿γ/α'界面形成微孔,进一步加剧界面脱粘过程。同时,过饱和氢原子也可能在α'马氏体的亚结构(如板条/基体边界)内富集。同时,过饱和氢原子可能在 α' 马氏体亚结构(如板条/基体边界)处富集,引发脱粘机制并诱导内部产生裂纹[74-75]。因此,应变诱导α'马氏体相变产生的过饱和氢原子在传统奥氏体不锈钢氢脆失效机制中起关键作用。由此可见,氢原子对裂纹扩展的加速作用取决于其向裂纹尖端临界区域的供给速率及局部质量浓度。增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中胞状组织的氢原子捕获以及变形协调能力都显著强于传统奥氏体不锈钢的。

图 3 增材制造和传统奥氏体不锈钢氢脆机制示意图[ 60-69] Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms of additive manufacturing and traditional austenitic stainless steels[ 60-69]

增材制造奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆机制如下:(1)氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散受阻,避免了因氢原子在局部区域聚集导致的脆化;(2)氢原子与奥氏体不锈钢中的析出相或缺陷相互作用,形成稳定的氢化物,改变了奥氏体不锈钢的晶体结构,从而降低氢脆敏感性;(3)奥氏体不锈钢因具有微观组织结构的独特优势,可有效抑制氢原子的扩散与富集,进而提升其抗氢脆性能[41-42]

增材制造奥氏体不锈钢强度提高主要原因是:(1)增材制造细化了奥氏体不锈钢晶粒,有效阻碍了位错运动;(2)胞状组织也对奥氏体不锈钢的强度有贡献,其特殊的晶体结构可能增强了奥氏体不锈钢的晶格稳定性;(3)析出相的存在提高了奥氏体不锈钢的强度[43-46]。充氢后,氢原子与奥氏体不锈钢中的位错等缺陷相互作用,使位错运动受阻,进一步提高奥氏体不锈钢的强度。随着氢原子扩散质量浓度的增加,奥氏体不锈钢中平衡空位体积浓度随之增加,致使奥氏体不锈钢面心立方结构的晶格稳定性下降,层错能降低,进而诱发马氏体相变[76]

3 结 论

与传统奥氏体不锈钢相比,增材制造奥氏体不锈钢表现出优异的抗氢脆性能。本文对增材制造奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆机制进行了全面综述。对于传统奥氏体不锈钢,氢原子沿晶界、相界、裂纹尖端向基体内部扩散,进而增加了奥氏体不锈钢的氢脆风险。其中氢原子主要富集在晶界强吸附位点附近,产生局域应力集中,表现为应力诱导马氏体相变或促使裂纹萌生,这是引发氢脆的主要原因[75-80]

增材制造奥氏体不锈钢呈现出特殊的多尺度、高密度位错胞组织。晶界、胞状组织、析出相等微观组织特征,在氢原子捕获过程中发挥关键作用,同时也显著影响氢原子在奥氏体不锈钢中的扩散行为。其复杂的微观组织结构,导致氢原子在不同区域的捕获与扩散特性存在差异,进而改善了奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能。本文剖析了微观组织结构与氢原子吸附机制的关系,对优化增材制造工艺、提升奥氏体不锈钢抗氢脆能力及推动氢能实际应用具有重要意义。

4 展 望

随着氢能的广泛应用,对储氢用奥氏体不锈钢的抗氢脆性能提出了更高要求。采用增材制造工艺制备奥氏体不锈钢的过程中,凝固初期存在热量传递不均匀的情况。靠近熔池边界区域的冷却速率较大,而中心区域的冷却速率相对较小。这种冷却速率的差异致使不同位置的原子扩散速率不同。具体而言,较大冷却速率区域的原子来不及充分扩散就开始凝固,而较小冷却速率区域的原子则有更多时间进行重排,原子扩散速率的差异导致了成分的不均匀分布。在一些区域,溶质原子富集,而在另一些区域这些溶质原子则相对贫化。这种成分的不均匀性进一步对晶体的生长造成影响。晶体在生长过程中,会优先沿着特定方向生长,形成柱状晶。不同柱状晶之间相互竞争和相互作用,当相邻柱状晶的生长方向相互制约时,就会在界面处形成胞状组织。值得注意的是,增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中捕获氢原子最为有效的组织是胞状组织。因此,如何优化增材制造工艺以获得位错密度更高、尺寸更小的胞状组织,成为未来工艺优化的重点。

(1)可以通过适当提高激光功率,使熔池温度升高,促进原子的扩散和迁移,这有利于形成尺寸更小的胞状组织。同时,降低扫描速率能够延长熔池的凝固时间,让晶体有更充足的时间生长,从而有可能细化胞状组织。另外,合理减小扫描间距能够增大熔池之间的相互作用和改变热场分布,从而有助于位错的形成和增殖,进而提高位错密度。

(2)对奥氏体不锈钢的成分进行微调,增加原位析出相数量、种类,也能起到优化作用。可以通过时效处理调控析出相的种类、数量和分布,来影响胞状组织的演变。细小弥散的析出相能够钉扎位错、捕获高质量浓度氢原子、阻碍位错运动,从而提高位错密度。而且,析出相的存在还可能对胞状组织的边界产生影响,使胞状组织的尺寸进一步减小。在基础合金成分中添加适量的微量元素,如稀土等。这些微量元素可以作为形核核心,增加形核率,使胞状组织的尺寸更加细小。而且,微量元素还能与基体中的原子发生相互作用,影响位错的运动和增殖,进一步提高位错密度。

(3)孪晶对氢原子捕获、氢原子扩散的影响存在特殊作用。通过在增材制造奥氏体不锈钢中引入孪晶,可显著提升其氢原子捕获能力和抗氢脆性能,为改善材料抗氢脆性能提供新思路。增材制造奥氏体不锈钢可通过合理的后处理工艺诱导生成或促进孪晶增殖。热处理是一种常用的后处理方法,通过调控热处理的温度、时间和冷却速率,可以改变奥氏体不锈钢的微观组织结构,促进孪晶的形成。塑性变形处理,如轧制、锻造等,也可以在奥氏体不锈钢中引入孪晶。拉伸更容易发生孪晶诱导塑性变形,在塑性变形过程中,位错运动和位错相互作用会导致孪晶的形成,通过控制变形量和变形速率,可以调节孪晶的密度和尺寸。

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