恶性肿瘤作为威胁人类健康的一大疾病,给我国医疗体系带来了巨大压力。据世界卫生组织统计,在全球183个国家里,有112个国家将肿瘤列为70岁以内人群的首要或第二大死亡原因。2020年,全球肿瘤新发病例有1 930万例,死亡病例已达1 000万例,预测到2040年,全球肿瘤新发病例将达2 840万例,治疗的形势十分严峻[1]。传统的肿瘤治疗方法如手术、化疗、放疗等,虽具有一定治疗效果,却不可避免地伴有副作用。肿瘤微环境具有以下独特性质:异常的肿瘤血管系统、缺氧环境、弱酸性环境、过表达的酶、高浓度的H2O2以及高浓度的谷胱甘肽[2]。这些特性致使肿瘤细胞易增殖、转化与转移,成为肿瘤治疗的难点,使得常规治疗方法不再能完全满足治疗需求。因此,开发治疗效果好且副作用小的新型治疗策略迫在眉睫。目前,各类金属基材料在肿瘤治疗方面的潜力正被广泛探索,这为未来肿瘤治疗策略提供了新的理论依据。
铜广泛存在于各类生物体内,直接参与各种生物过程,已被证明可以促进生命系统中的细胞增殖、血管生成、细胞迁移和胶原沉积[3-4],是生命的基本元素。铜独特的氧化还原特性,使其对细胞既有益又有害[5]。
1 铜的生理作用和重要性当细胞内铜水平超出日常需求时,会产生细胞毒性并使细胞死亡;当铜缺乏时,铜的吸收和运输过程受到阻碍,进而导致细胞内铜分布异常[6]。在生物学领域,铜的代谢过程与Cu+和Cu2+间的转换密切相关,这种转换通过接受或释放单个电子实现[7]。每日摄入0.8 mg的铜即可维持人体内铜平衡[8]。实际上,人体从食物中摄取的铜大多为Cu2+,然而细胞并不能直接吸收和利用该类铜。Cu2+进入小肠后,由肠道细胞表面的还原酶进行处理[9]。在二价金属转运蛋白1的协助下,Cu2+被还原成Cu+,随后与二价金属铜转运蛋白1结合进入细胞中。在细胞内铜被输送到抗氧化剂1铜伴侣蛋白 (antioxidant 1 copper chaperone protein,ATOX1)中。ATOX1与铜转运腺苷三磷酸(adenosine triphosphate,ATP)酶B协同作用,合成铜蓝蛋白,进而作用于全身[10-12]。铜在细胞内所具有的氧化还原特性,使其成为众多关键酶的辅助因子。细胞内铜平衡对细胞的新陈代谢至关重要,是维持这些铜依赖性酶正常功能的基础。
2 铜代谢与肿瘤环境正常生理状态下,细胞内外的铜水平受到机体的严格调控。一旦铜稳态失去平衡,便会引发严重疾病。大量研究表明,铜与人体肿瘤之间存在紧密关联,肿瘤组织中的铜水平显著高于正常组织中的[13-17]。过高的铜水平会促进肿瘤组织的增殖、肿瘤血管的生成以及肿瘤的转移。具体而言,Cu+可激活促肿瘤信号通路,进而增强肿瘤组织的增殖能力[18];还能激活肿瘤血管生成因子,刺激血管内皮细胞增殖;与此同时,稳定肿瘤中的核缺氧诱导因子,以此促使新的炎症血管生成[19]。此外,铜还可以通过激活参与代谢和增殖过程的酶来增强肿瘤细胞的转移能力。当细胞内铜水平过低时,将会阻断丝裂原活化蛋白激酶激酶1和2(mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase1/2,MEK1/2)、铜转运ATP酶A、ATOX1、Cu/Zn−超氧化物歧化酶−1(superoxide dismutase1,SOD-1)、缺氧诱导因子−1(hypoxia-inducible factor-1,HIF-1)和核因子κB的功能,进而抑制肿瘤细胞增殖、转移和血管生成[7, 20]。图1为Cu+在肿瘤细胞中的作用示意图[7]。
3 细胞死亡细胞死亡方式主要有细胞凋亡和细胞坏死,此外还包括细胞自噬和焦亡等[21-22]。在这些死亡方式中,细胞凋亡、细胞自噬,以及通过离子调控的铁死亡与铜死亡,均属于程序性细胞死亡;而细胞焦亡和坏死则属于非程序性死亡。铁死亡主要是由于细胞内铁水平过高,引发脂质过氧化,进而诱导细胞凋亡[23]。在铜死亡机制方面:一方面,铜会致使活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)水平过高,降低细胞抗氧化能力,从而导致细胞死亡;另一方面,铜参与线粒体上三羧酸(tricarboxylic acid,TCA)循环,引发蛋白质毒性,进而促使细胞死亡[24]。
3.1 细胞凋亡细胞凋亡是一种程序化且受调控的细胞自我毁灭过程,主要包括3种途径,分别为内在途径、外在途径和穿孔素或颗粒酶途径[25]。其发生机制主要是在氧化应激状态下会产生反应性中间体,这些中间体会导致膜脂质双层中的不饱和脂肪酸发生氧化。生成的氧化产物能够与膜受体上的转录因子或抑制剂相互作用,从而激活细胞凋亡信号[25-26]。在细胞器层面,ROS能够氧化线粒体膜上的不饱和脂肪酸,破坏线粒体膜的通透性以及线粒体通透性过渡孔的正常功能[27-29]。从分子水平而言,长链脂肪酸可通过诱导脂质过氧化反应来触发细胞凋亡[30-31]。
3.2 细胞自噬自噬是细胞质中受损的蛋白质或细胞器被自噬小泡包裹后,转运至动物细胞中的溶酶体或植物细胞液泡中这一过程的所有途径的统称[32]。自噬既可以保护细胞,也会造成细胞损伤。自噬主要可分为3种类型:巨自噬、微自噬和分子伴侣介导的自噬[33-34]。当细胞内发生脂质过氧化时,会产生大量ROS。ROS可作为信号分子,激活自噬相关基因的表达,进而启动自噬过程。过氧化脂质会与特定受体或者修饰蛋白相互作用,从而将损伤信号传递至自噬信号通路,以此调控自噬相关基因的表达。过度自噬有可能导致细胞死亡[35-36]。
3.3 铁死亡2012年Dixon等[37]首次提出并定义了铁死亡这一新型死亡方式。铁死亡过程涉及铁依赖性的脂质氧化反应。在铁死亡过程中,细胞内ROS水平显著升高,特别是脂质过氧化物大量积累。同时,谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)水平降低,致使细胞抗氧化能力减弱。这些变化导致细胞膜通透性增加,最终引发细胞死亡[38-39]。近来有研究[40-41]发现,某些与细胞铁死亡相关的基因和蛋白,如GSH过氧化酶4(glutathione peroxidase 4,GPX4),能够根据细胞需求,动态调节细胞对铁死亡的敏感性。
3.4 铜死亡有研究[20]发现,铜能够引发一种新型细胞死亡方式—铜死亡。铜死亡的主要机制是,铜靶向硫辛酰化TCA循环蛋白,导致硫辛酰化蛋白聚集、铁硫簇蛋白缺失,进而造成细胞代谢失衡,最终导致细胞死亡(见图2)。芬顿反应是一种无机化学反应,其原理为,Fe2+催化H2O2并产生有毒的羟基自由基,从而导致细胞死亡[42]。当细胞内Cu2+水平过高时,同样会诱发芬顿反应,导致产生大量ROS。过量的ROS会使GSH水平降低和氧化应激加剧,进而对脂质、蛋白质和DNA造成损害,最终诱导细胞凋亡[43]。基于铜死亡这一特性,越来越多的研究者开展了以铜死亡为基础的抗肿瘤研究工作。
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图 2 铜通过靶向硫辛酰化TCA循环蛋白诱导细胞死亡的示意图[24] Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of copper inducing cell death by targeting a lipoacylated TCA circulating protein[24] |
铜基纳米材料可用于肿瘤诊断和治疗领域。在肿瘤诊断方面,其可应用于正电子发射计算机断层扫描(positron emission computed tomography,PET)、光声成像(photoacoustic imaging,PAI)和磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)。在肿瘤治疗中,所涉及的铜基材料主要包括铜基纳米材料、铜配合物和铜螯合物。
4.1 铜基纳米材料用于肿瘤成像肿瘤因处于独特的微环境中,其组织的复杂性要高于正常组织的。因此,迫切需要具有高分辨率、高灵敏度以及更高效的成像策略,以实现精准诊断。肿瘤的早期诊断是肿瘤治疗的关键环节之一,因此,影像学在临床肿瘤诊疗中发挥着至关重要的作用[44-45]。影像学成像主要划分为结构成像和功能成像两类。其中,结构成像包括X射线、计算机断层扫描(computed tomography,CT)、MRI;功能成像则包含单光子发射计算机断层扫描(single photon emission computed tomography,SPECT)和PET。铜基纳米材料在放大成像信号、提高成像分辨率方面发挥着重要作用[7,46]。
PET是一种微创成像技术,能够获得特定生化和生理过程的定量三维成像信息,64Cu的半衰期为12.7 h,具有衰变特性,是肿瘤微环境成像和测量血流的潜在候选者[47]。Zhou等[48] 合成了一种新型的(64Cu)CuS纳米颗粒,通过尾静脉注射到小鼠体内,24 h后,可在小鼠全身获得高分辨率的PET图像。Piccardo等[49]评估了50名前列腺癌患者64CuCl2 PET/CT和18F−胆碱PET/CT的多项参数,结果表明,与18F−胆碱PET/CT相比,64CuCl2 PET/CT具有更高的检出率。
PAI是一种光声断层扫描技术,是借助超声波实现对生物组织的可视化。PAI已被证明能够进行具有高超声分辨率和高光学对比度的多尺度成像[50]。若要使PAI展现出更强的成像能力,就需要具备高近红外吸光能力的试剂,如金纳米颗粒、石墨烯等。尽管这些材料对近红外光具有很强的吸收能力,但要实现PAI向实际应用的转化,仍需要能吸收更长波长的纳米材料。Geng等[50] 构建了一种用于深度PAI的半导体CuS纳米颗粒,PAI图像显示该颗粒能够有效地增强光声对比度。文献[51-52]中设计了一种全氟化碳纳米液滴,该液滴含有CuS纳米颗粒和有机胶束,应用于PAI时,可降低生物降解性和清除率,具有很高的临床转化潜力。
由于铜具有特殊性质,例如抗磁性的Cu(Ⅰ)能够被细胞内的H2O2氧化为顺磁性的Cu(Ⅱ),因此,铜可被设计用作MRI的造影剂[53]。Mou等[54] 构建了一种单一成分Cu2-xS纳米探针,用于多模态成像,该多模态成像包括MRI、红外热成像(infrared thermography,IRT)和PAI。研究结果显示,单一的铜基纳米材料可通过多模态成像克服单模态成像的局限性,拓宽了铜基纳米材料在肿瘤影像诊断领域的应用范围(见图3)。
4.2 铜基纳米材料用于肿瘤治疗纳米材料在近红外光、超声和微波等外在条件刺激下,能够展现出更强的杀伤效果,可诱导细胞凋亡。基于纳米材料的药物递送系统已得到广泛探索与应用[55]。在各种纳米材料中,铜基纳米材料因其具有良好的生物相容性、较大的比表面积、出色的稳定性和光响应性,被设计为载药纳米粒子。铜基纳米材料对多种肿瘤细胞具有明显毒性,例如CuO纳米颗粒对HeLaS3和A549细胞系有明显毒性[56-57]。铜基纳米材料可作为光热转换材料,在光热治疗中展现出突出的应用潜力。铜基纳米材料能促进ROS的生成,从而提高肿瘤细胞的死亡率。铜基纳米材料通过释放Cu2+来改变线粒体的呼吸方式,进而抑制线粒体为肿瘤细胞供能。此外,铜基纳米材料还可搭载化疗药物用于肿瘤治疗[58-60]。Cu2+能与双硫仑(disulfiram,DSF)的代谢产物二乙二硫代氨基甲酸酯发生原位螯合,形成具有杀伤肿瘤细胞作用的铜离子复合物(见图4)[61-62]。在生物医药应用方面,CuS是最常见的铜基纳米材料之一,其对多种肿瘤细胞具有杀伤力,且对正常组织呈现低毒性[63]。
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图 4 DSF与Cu2+配合杀伤细胞的示意图[62] Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of cell killing by the combination of DSF and Cu2+ [62] |
Cu2+配合物对肿瘤细胞具有显著的细胞毒性,能够引发氧化激活反应,诱导细胞内生物分子受损,进而导致细胞死亡[64]。DSF具有特异的抗肿瘤活性。研究表明,DSF/Cu复合物通过激活丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPK)通路,促使包括白血病细胞系和胃肿瘤细胞系凋亡,为肿瘤治疗提供了新的策略[65-67]。含萘基的新型铜配合物通过与白血病细胞相互作用,阻滞白血病细胞周期,从而抑制细胞的生长和增殖,实现治疗肿瘤的目的[68-69]。Gu等[70]通过设计并制备三联吡啶铜复合物的研究得出,该铜复合物能够诱导细胞周期相关蛋白表达发生改变,促使凋亡Bax蛋白的表达水平升高,而抗凋亡Bcl-2蛋白的表达水平降低,导致细胞色素c和半胱天冬酶级联激活的释放,并诱导线粒体介导的细胞凋亡。目前,治疗恶性实体肿瘤主要方案是基于顺铂的联合治疗,但顺铂药物存在严重的副作用,且肿瘤细胞对其极易产生耐药性[71-72]。磷化铜配合物因其强大的抗肿瘤增殖作用而受到关注。Gandin等[73]对磷化铜配合物的抑制机制展开研究发现,可通过副凋亡(一种非凋亡性细胞程序死亡)诱导细胞死亡。
此外,铜螯合剂可通过降低铜的生物利用度,抑制肿瘤增殖、转移和血管生成。目前,常用于肿瘤治疗的铜螯合剂有四硫代钼酸盐和曲恩汀。而Cu2+载体可通过诱导细胞凋亡、抑制蛋白酶体活性以及产生ROS等方式来抑制肿瘤增殖[7]。
5 结 论铜作为人体内必须的微量金属元素,在维持机体正常生理功能方面发挥着关键作用。然而,人体内铜稳态一旦失衡,无论是铜过量还是缺乏,均会对人体造成严重损害。当铜过量时,会产生大量ROS。这些ROS与TCA循环发生反应,引发蛋白毒性应激,最终导致细胞死亡。在常见的金属离子中,Cu2+的细胞毒性相对于锰离子和铁离子的更强。不过,铜基纳米材料正在逐步克服这一难题。铜基纳米材料不仅能降低细胞毒性,且具备高生物相容性和靶向性等优势。基于这些特性,铜基纳米材料已在纳米医学领域得到广泛应用,涵盖肿瘤成像、诊断以及治疗等多个方面。综上所述,铜基纳米材料在未来肿瘤诊疗领域展现出了极为广阔的应用前景。
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2025, Vol. 46

