有色金属材料与工程  2023, Vol. 44 Issue (5): 36-46    DOI: 10.13258/j.cnki.nmme.2023.05.006   PDF    
316L不锈钢应力腐蚀研究进展
李坤, 郑嘉懿, 杨庆超, 詹科    
上海理工大学 材料与化学学院, 上海 200093
摘要:316L不锈钢具备良好的力学性能、焊接性能、耐蚀性能,被广泛应用于化工管道、船舶及核电等领域。因其应用环境复杂,316L不锈钢在特定介质环境和拉应力的协同作用下,易发生应力腐蚀开裂,导致严重事故。概述了316L不锈钢应力腐蚀裂纹萌生及扩展的规律,总结了其应力腐蚀的阳极溶解和氢致开裂两种微观主导机制的特点。在此基础上,针对介质环境、材料、表面应力状态3个影响因素,综述了近年来通过调节介质环境的pH、溶液浓度、引入压应力、优化微观结构及涂层工艺等方面,改善316L不锈钢应力腐蚀性能的研究进展。最后,基于316L不锈钢面临的应力腐蚀问题,从应力腐蚀机制和防护措施两方面展望了316L不锈钢应力腐蚀的研究热点和方向。
关键词316L不锈钢    应力腐蚀    裂纹萌生    阳极溶解    氢致开裂    
Research progress on stress corrosion of 316L stainless steel
LI Kun, ZHENG Jiayi, YANG Qingchao, ZHAN Ke    
School of Materials and Chemistry, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
Abstract: 316L stainless steel has good mechanical properties, welding performance, and corrosion resistance, and is widely used in chemical pipelines, ships, nuclear power, and other fields. Due to the complex application environment, 316L stainless steel is prone to stress corrosion cracking under the synergistic effect of specific media environment and tensile stresses, leading to serious accidents. The laws of the stress corrosion crack initiation and propagation in 316L stainless steel were overviewed, the characteristics of the two micro dominant mechanisms of stress corrosion, anodic dissolution and hydrogen induced cracking, were summarized. On this basis, arming at the three influencing factors of medium environment, material, and surface stress state, the recent research progress in improving the stress corrosion performance of 316L stainless steel by adjusting the pH, solution concentration, introducing compressive stress, optimizing microstructure, and coating process of the medium environment is reviewed. Finally, based on the stress corrosion problem faced by 316L stainless steel, the research hotspots and directions of stress corrosion in 316L stainless steel are prospected from the two aspects of stress corrosion mechanism and protective measures.
Key words: 316L stainless steel    stress corrosion    crack initiation    anode dissolution    hydrogen cracking    

奥氏体不锈钢具有较高的塑性及韧性、优异的耐腐蚀性以及焊接性,应用广泛[1]。316L不锈钢是奥氏体不锈钢之一,含有丰富的Cr、Ni及质量分数为2%~3%的Mo,且其含碳量较316不锈钢低,具有更优异的抗氧化性能和抗点蚀性能[2-3],广泛应用于核反应堆[4-6]、生物医疗器械[7-8]和石油化工等领域。常规腐蚀条件下,316L不锈钢表面能够形成钝化膜,降低腐蚀速率。若316L不锈钢在恶劣腐蚀环境中服役的时间较长且存在拉应力时,在二者共同作用下其表面稳定性降低、极化电阻减小,抗腐蚀性能显著降低,最终导致不锈钢工件出现应力腐蚀失效。应力腐蚀裂纹一般起源于表面点蚀坑,随着所受应力时间的延长,应力腐蚀裂纹在晶界处萌生,裂纹尖端在侵蚀性离子与应力共同作用下不断扩展,裂纹宽度也随之增加,最终造成材料的脆性断裂。与其他腐蚀形式相比,应力腐蚀的可控性及不可预料性较难掌握,每年因应力腐蚀导致设备失效所造成的经济损失较大。应力腐蚀与材料、介质[9]、应力状态[10]密切相关,图1总结了金属材料应力腐蚀的影响因素及调控方法。基于316L不锈钢的特点及应用环境,有待从本质上明晰316L不锈钢发生应力腐蚀的微观机制,确定影响应力腐蚀开裂的因素,制定合适的应力腐蚀防护技术,从而提高316L不锈钢的抗应力腐蚀开裂性能。

图 1 金属材料应力腐蚀开裂的影响因素及调控方法 Fig. 1 Influencing factors and control methods of stress corrosion cracking in metallic materials
1 应力腐蚀裂纹的萌生及扩展

316L不锈钢与其他金属材料的应力腐蚀均涉及到裂纹的萌生及扩展,涉及多尺度。结合宏观力学模型,对宏观裂纹的扩展行为研究较多。受到微观表征及测量技术限制,微观裂纹萌生及微裂纹的扩展研究相对较少。对于应力腐蚀微裂纹大多萌生于材料表面的薄弱处,通常,材料表面的不连续性或者表面存在点蚀坑是应力腐蚀裂纹萌生的主要原因,材料表面不连续性主要体现在机械加工过程中产生的搭接、凹槽等,或含有预存在裂纹[11]。316不锈钢常见应力腐蚀微裂纹萌生位置如图2所示。当微裂纹萌生后在拉应力与腐蚀环境的相互作用下,微裂纹尖端的局部区域达到裂纹扩展的门槛值,形成扩展裂纹。

图 2 316L不锈钢应力腐蚀裂纹萌生示意图 Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of stress corrosion crack initiation in 316L stainless steel

应力腐蚀裂纹的萌生取决于材料所处的腐蚀环境及局部应力状态。图3为奥氏体不锈钢引起裂纹萌生的具体实例,其中包括304不锈钢在硫酸铜−硫酸溶液中所发生的晶间腐蚀[12];316L不锈钢在沸腾氯化镁溶液中产生的机加工应力腐蚀裂纹[13];316L不锈钢在硫化物中形成的腐蚀坑裂纹[14]。Zhang等[13]研究了316L不锈钢切削表面状态对应力腐蚀裂纹萌生的影响。图4的结果表明,不同切削工艺造成的表面应力大小是影响微裂纹萌生的重要因素。

图 3 奥氏体不锈钢裂纹萌生示例[12-14] Fig. 3 Examples of crack initiation in austenitic stainless steel [12-14]

图 4 316L不锈钢不同表面应力状态下表面微裂纹形貌[13] Fig. 4 Surface-microcrack morphologies of 316L stainless steel under different surface stress states[13]

目前,在许多工程应用中,表面局部点蚀被认为是应力腐蚀开裂的前兆,这归因于它提供的局部腐蚀溶液可引起化学反应,降低了氧化膜的保护作用,并促进裂纹从萌生到扩展的过渡。近十几年来,对点蚀到裂纹过渡的研究及测量点蚀凹坑中微裂纹的扩展速率一直是主要的研究课题。Lu等[15]研究了316L不锈钢在含Cl的高温水中的应力腐蚀开裂行为,发现其应力腐蚀开裂优先发生在腐蚀坑的底部。

近年来,针对应力腐蚀裂纹萌生的位置,先后建立了裂纹萌生位置与点蚀凹坑中应力腐蚀裂纹演化的模型[16-18]。这些模型均基于Kondo[19]提出的坑-裂纹过渡的现象学标准,即:点蚀坑深度必须大于阈值深度,且裂纹扩展速率应超过点蚀凹坑扩展速率。Horner等[20]用三维X射线显微断层成像技术表征了凹坑向裂纹过渡的过程,结果显示,裂纹主要发生在点蚀凹坑边缘。为了深入了解316L不锈钢在腐蚀性氯化物中裂纹的起源,Hinds等[14]表征了316L不锈钢样品表面裂纹的腐蚀坑形貌,如图5所示,结果表明,应力腐蚀裂纹源与局部应力集中密切相关,而局部应力集中与点蚀坑的几何形状密切相关。因此,对于应力腐蚀裂纹源萌生的具体位置大部分取决于点蚀坑的几何形状。

图 5 316L不锈钢应力腐蚀过程中不同深度点蚀的微观形貌[14] Fig. 5 Micro-morphologies of the corrosion pitting with different depths in the stress corrosion process of 316L stainless steel [14]

在腐蚀环境及拉应力的作用下,应力腐蚀裂纹倾向于向材料内部扩展,最后逐渐形成稳定扩展的长裂纹直至失效。通过试验及模拟建立裂纹的扩展速率与外部应力状态的定量关系是目前研究的热点。

2 应力腐蚀机制

应力腐蚀开裂是由应力和特定腐蚀性介质共同作用致使材料断裂失效的复杂过程。材料所处的环境不同,则应力腐蚀机制不同。早前,Scully等[21]和Cochran等[22]认为应力腐蚀的发生与否,取决于基体溶解速率和新表面生成速率之间的平衡关系。近年来,Kulekci等[23]和Martin等[24]认为,应力腐蚀机制有两种不同类型,分别是溶解腐蚀和氢脆。在溶解机制中,裂纹是由裂纹尖端的局部电化学溶解引起的;在氢脆机制中,氢进入金属内部会降低其塑性变形能力,从而导致开裂。其开裂机制与在腐蚀过程中阴极和阳极之间产生的化学反应密切相关[25]。现在被广泛认可的应力腐蚀机制分别是阳极溶解型机制和氢致开裂型机制[26]

2.1 阳极溶解型机制

316L不锈钢的使用环境中常含有卤素元素如氯离子,可破坏钝化膜加速阳极溶解。Beavers等[27]认为阳极溶解型机制是当金属在腐蚀环境中受到拉应力作用会萌生出微裂纹,裂纹两侧为阳极,未腐蚀的区域为阴极,继而形成一个发生电化学腐蚀的微电偶腐蚀电池。阳极溶解机制又包含了滑移溶解机制和氧化膜开裂机制等[28],当金属表面位错受到外界拉应力作用而产生滑移导致塑性变形达到一定程度时,滑移面上的位错会移动至表面氧化膜处产生滑移台阶,当台阶的高度大于氧化膜的厚度时,氧化膜就会发生破裂,导致暴露的新鲜表面在腐蚀介质中发生快速阳极溶解。当溶解区域较大时,O2的吸附致使活性离子发生转换,形成的表面膜使溶解区域重回钝化状态。当位错在应力作用下重新移动时,阳极溶解现象会再次发生,因此,形成滑移—膜破裂—阳极溶解—再钝化的过程,最终发生应力腐蚀,316L不锈钢应力腐蚀阳极溶解机制示意图如图6所示。这种应力腐蚀机制可以解释腐蚀敏感性与应变速率的关系以及应力腐蚀发生在特定的电势范围等试验。Martin等[29]研究了316LN钢筋在氯离子溶液中的应力腐蚀并从应力-应变关系图上判断其开裂机制。试验证明,氯离子增强了点蚀过程,导致氧化膜破裂,从而形成了阳极溶解型应力腐蚀机制,并通过无损电化学测试证明了氧化膜的破裂和生长,同时验证了应力腐蚀机制类型。

图 6 316L不锈钢应力腐蚀阳极溶解微观示意图 Fig. 6 Microscopic schematic diagram of anodic dissolution for the stress corrosion in 316L stainless steel
2.2 氢致开裂机制

在腐蚀性环境中,316L不锈钢微观区域形成原电池,阴极发生析氢反应电离析出的氢离子会得电子形成氢原子,氢原子则易通过吸附、扩散等途径渗透进材料内部。在整个316L不锈钢应力腐蚀开裂的过程中,主裂纹的形核和扩展是由阴极反应产生的氢原子控制的,在施加拉应力下,这种破裂失效机制为应力腐蚀开裂的氢致开裂机制[30]。如图7所示,微裂纹尖端处的位错与外加应力相互作用并形成最大应力场,导致氢原子在裂纹尖端形成氢原子的富集区,而当尖端氢原子浓度达到临界值时,会发生氢脆现象促使微裂纹的形成。

图 7 316L不锈钢氢致开裂理论示意图 Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of hydrogen cracking theory in 316L stainless steel

目前电化学测试是区分应力腐蚀机制属于阳极溶解型还是氢致开裂型的主要方法,研究电势的影响是判断应力腐蚀机制的重要手段之一。一般来说,如果阴极极化使裂纹扩展速率升高,断裂寿命下降则为氢致开裂机制,但这种判断无法确定应力腐蚀类型的唯一性。目前,Latypova等[31]开发了一种新的音叉试验方法来研究316L不锈钢的氢致应力腐蚀开裂,采用有限元模型对应力状态进行了验证,证明在硫化物溶液中的不锈钢在阴极充氢条件下可通过恒定位移实现精确的应力调整,从而进一步了解应力腐蚀氢致开裂机制。

3 应力腐蚀控制方法 3.1 调节环境参数

溶液中氯离子浓度、pH、温度[32]是316L不锈钢发生应力腐蚀重要的环境影响因素。这些可通过极化行为与腐蚀电势的变化来影响应力腐蚀,腐蚀过程中316L不锈钢作为阳极,而自腐蚀电势则是由环境介质中的阴极反应过程所决定的,因此在316L不锈钢应力腐蚀过程中,可以通过调控环境介质来改变316L不锈钢自腐蚀电势,优化其抗应力腐蚀性能。

氯离子作为卤素离子具有很强的破坏钝化的能力,可破坏钝化膜加速阳极溶解[33]。为了探索不锈钢发生应力腐蚀时氯离子浓度所需要达到的条件,Truman[34]对二者之间的关系进行深入的研究,最终发现在pH=7的溶液中只有氯离子浓度超过105 mg/L时,才会产生应力腐蚀裂纹。关于316L不锈钢腐蚀行为与氯离子之间关系,史艳华等[35]通过浸泡法与电化学相结合的方式,发现当氯离子浓度为3%时,腐蚀现象最为严重。此外,不锈钢的应力腐蚀速率会随着pH降低而加快。Wang等[36]通过动电势极化曲线、交流阻抗谱等方式研究不同pH对316L不锈钢在高温高压水溶液中腐蚀行为的影响,当pH从6.42升高到7.52时,膜电阻降低,腐蚀电流密度增加,抗腐蚀能力减弱。应力腐蚀开裂行为在很大程度上取决于溶液的pH,在中性环境下应力腐蚀敏感度最低。除pH及离子浓度之外,还可通过调控环境温度来控制316L不锈钢的应力腐蚀速率。因早期试验环境受限,研究者们认为温度与应力腐蚀敏感性之间是正反馈关系,随着技术进步,该结论只有当温度处在一定区间方可成立。大量试验数据表明,当奥氏体不锈钢在热碱[37-38]、热盐、超临界水[39]及高温水溶液中,温度越高应力腐蚀敏感性越大。316L不锈钢的钝化速率会随着温度的降低、pH的升高、氯离子浓度的降低而增强。

3.2 控制施加应力及引入压应力

拉应力是发生应力腐蚀的必备条件。通常以应力腐蚀临界应力强度因子(KISCC)判定裂纹是否扩展,当KISCC小于裂纹尖端应力场强度因子KI时,金属就会产生应力腐蚀裂纹,判据为:KISCCKI或σ≧σc,其中σ为断裂抗力,σc为临界破裂应力。材料与介质环境等因素决定了KISCC的差异,传统的测定方法基于三点弯曲或四点弯曲试验方法,误差较大。故目前采用基于弹性断裂力学理论的新测试方法,其灵活性与精准性更高。残余拉应力是诱发应力腐蚀最为关键的因素,表面拉应力的产生主要是由机械加工以及不合理的结构设计所带来的,改变材料表面应力状态是控制应力腐蚀的有效手段之一[40]

在过去几十年中,喷丸强化一直是改变材料表面应力状态最广泛的使用方法。如Vinoth等[41]对增材制造的316L不锈钢进行喷丸处理,其电化学测试结果表明喷丸处理引起的残余压应力对降低腐蚀速率起主要作用。Ming等[42]通过在高温水中对316L不锈钢进行水射流空化强化处理,图8的结果表明,喷丸明显提高316L不锈钢的抗应力腐蚀性能,其原因是残余压应力的增加和表层组织的改变。

图 8 316L不锈钢不同拉伸应变下应力腐蚀后的形貌[42] Fig. 8 Morphologies of the 316L stainless steel after stress corrosion at different tensile strains[42]

在喷丸强化中,残余压应力在深度上的分布与喷丸强度及材料表层的力学性能密切相关[43]。在传统的喷丸强化工艺的基础上,又发展了激光喷丸[44],激光喷丸会获得更深的残余压应力分布,可改善金属材料和合金的疲劳、耐腐蚀性能、耐磨性等[45]。Lu等[46]通过对316L不锈钢U型弯曲试样进行激光喷丸处理,如图9图10所示,研究了残余压应力、晶粒细化对其抗应力腐蚀性能的影响。激光喷丸处理在不锈钢表面诱发较深的残余压应力是提高耐蚀性的主要原因,同时表层晶粒细化也有助于提高奥氏体相的稳定性,亦可以提高零件抗应力腐蚀开裂的能力。然而喷丸强化伴随着损伤,如表面粗糙度的变化,也将会影响316L不锈钢的表面点蚀行为,进而影响裂纹的萌生,因此,平衡形变强化与损伤对316L不锈钢抗应力腐蚀性能的影响也有待进一步的深入研究。

图 9 316L不锈钢3种喷丸试样的示意图[46] Fig. 9 Schematic diagram for the three shot peening specimens of 316L stainless steel [46]

图 10 晶粒尺寸和残余应力对应力腐蚀裂纹萌生的综合影响示意图[46] Fig. 10 Schematic diagram for the comprehensive effects of grain size and residual stress on stress corrosion crack initiation[46]
3.3 优化微观结构

通常卤化物离子在晶界处更容易扩展,316L不锈钢晶界结构种类主要包括大角晶界、小角晶界、孪晶界和重合位置点阵晶界等[47-48]。Randle[49]认为与大角晶界相比,小角晶界和重位点阵晶界抗应力腐蚀性能更加优异。Liu等[50]研究了不同制造工艺的316L不锈钢在模拟沸水反应堆环境中的应力腐蚀开裂情况,图11所示的试验数据表明孪晶界的抗应力腐蚀能力比其他类型的晶界更强。金属晶体结构的差异也影响到材料的抗应力腐蚀性能。近年来,通过优化奥氏体不锈钢的晶界结构提高316L不锈钢抗应力腐蚀性能也逐渐受到关注。

图 11 不同晶界的裂纹数和归一化开裂概率统计图[50] Fig. 11 Statistical charts of crack numbers and normalized cracking probability at different grain boundaries [50]
3.4 表面防腐涂层

隔绝腐蚀环境与材料的直接接触是避免发生应力腐蚀最有效的方法。其中在316L不锈钢表面制备合金涂层[51]、陶瓷涂层[52]以及复合涂层[53]都有报道。Sai等[54]采用直流电沉积制备锌涂层,通过控制锌涂层择优取向以及涂层晶粒尺寸,使涂层具有较高的耐蚀性。除此之外,镍也是增强金属或合金的磨损和腐蚀性能的涂层[55]。Li等[56]在304不锈钢表面进行电镀镍处理,在盐酸浸泡试验中,与喷砂试样相比,镍镀层的耐腐蚀性明显增强,提高镍含量可将临界破裂电势正移至腐蚀电势之上,从而提高其耐应力腐蚀能力。Ma等[57]采用磁控溅射技术在316L不锈钢表面制备了7层(Al2O3-Y2O3)/Pt复合涂层,如图12所示。经过高温循环氧化和高温腐蚀试验,发现无涂层处理的样品经过高温腐蚀试验后,表面相较复合涂层的样品显现出较严重的剥落和腐蚀问题,而涂层样品表面则没有明显的缺陷,表明耐蚀性显著提高。

图 12 900 ℃高温腐蚀试验后样品的SEM图[57] Fig. 12 SEM images of the samples after 900°C high temperature corrosion test[57]

与传统合金涂层相比,在传统涂层中加入具有优异耐腐蚀性能的纳米材料形成抗腐蚀的纳米复合涂层也是目前研究的热点。纳米复合涂层具有孔隙率低、结合强度与硬度更高、抗氧化和耐腐蚀性能更加优异的特点。因316L不锈钢不耐卤化物腐蚀,所以限制了其在海水中的应用。在目前研究的纳米涂层中,五氧化钽、氮化钽等纳米材料防腐性能优异,与基材相比,钽基涂层可显著降低不锈钢在海水中超过50%的腐蚀速率。开发如钽基涂层以及二维纳米涂层材料如石墨烯、碳化硼等新型纳米复合涂层,对于提升316L不锈钢的抗应力腐蚀性能具有重大的意义。

4 结 论

316L不锈钢具有优异的机械性能和抗腐蚀性能,是工业应用中的重要原材料。因其应用环境严苛,应力腐蚀开裂过程较为复杂,有待系统建立不同表面参数如残余应力、表面粗糙度等表面完整性特征参数与316L不锈钢特定腐蚀介质条件下的应力腐蚀性能的关联关系。在316L不锈钢应力腐蚀微观机制研究方面,有待利用先进的微观表征技术结合计算机模拟仿真方法,在微观或原子尺度来探究316L不锈钢应力腐蚀机理,并揭示裂纹萌生和扩展行为。另外,结合应力腐蚀理论以及现代表面工程的最新发展,如新型涂层、表面合金化的技术,从表面形貌、应力状态以及腐蚀介质等角度,探索新型表面处理工艺对316L不锈钢抗应力腐蚀性能的影响。

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